Ten million EU citizens of working age were recorded living and working in a member state other than their own in 2024, according to a European Commission study on labour mobility. The figure represents a modest share of the bloc's 262 million working‑age population, but it highlights a persistent pattern of young, technically trained workers moving from poorer eastern economies to richer western markets.

Romania supplies the bulk of the movers

One in four of the migrants, roughly 2.5 million people, came from Romania, making it the single biggest exporter of labour within the Union. Poland contributed 11 percent and Italy 10 percent of the total, while the remaining share was spread across the rest of the EU. Germany remains the top destination, attracting more than three million newcomers, followed by Austria, the Netherlands and Sweden.

The typical profile matches the fictional example of a 25‑year‑old Romanian named Mihai who, after completing vocational training, finds limited prospects at home and decides to take a construction job in Bavaria. In reality, over half of all EU movers are aged between 20 and 34, hold medium‑level qualifications and are employed in sectors such as construction, accommodation, food services and transport.

Economic pull and social networks drive the trend

Wouter Zwysen, senior researcher at the European Trade Union Institute, explained that the main driver is the wage gap for technical‑skilled workers. "For the more highly educated, there have always been more opportunities in their home country, while for the technical‑skilled workers, the pay difference within the EU was very big," he told The Guardian. He added that personal contacts matter: "People also tend to move to where people they know have moved, although the trend is flipping a bit in more recent times, because incomes are converging and the pay differences are becoming much smaller."

Despite the convergence, the disparity remains stark. A construction worker in Bavaria can earn up to three times the salary of a counterpart in Bucharest, while social security contributions and tax regimes still differ markedly across borders.

Barriers keep mobility below the potential

Compared with the United States, where internal migration accounts for a much larger share of the labour force, the EU's figure looks modest. Zwysen pointed to cultural and language obstacles, but also to bureaucratic hurdles linked to national social‑security systems and the recognition of vocational qualifications. "These make internal EU mobility not all that different to international migration," he said.

For many migrants, the challenges do not end at the border. Workers from central, eastern and Baltic states often find themselves in lower‑paid, lower‑status jobs than native employees. An ETUI analysis co‑authored by Zwysen found that such migrants "still face disadvantages on the labour market, meaning they often work on lower‑quality jobs or for lower wages than locals." The gap is most visible in sectors that rely on manual skills, where employers may offer contracts with fewer benefits and limited prospects for advancement.

Employment rates vary with education and origin

The Commission's data reveal a paradox: migrants with lower levels of schooling are more likely to be employed than native workers of the same age group. In Norway, for example, 80 percent of low‑educated EU movers are in work compared with 62 percent of Norwegian locals. Zwysen suggested that willingness to accept less prestigious positions may explain the difference.

Conversely, highly educated movers, those holding university degrees, have slightly lower employment rates than their host‑country peers. The gap is small but consistent, indicating that even well‑qualified professionals may encounter obstacles such as credential recognition or language requirements.

Geography also matters. Workers from western European and Nordic countries tend to struggle more to find a job, but when they do, they are often placed in higher‑status occupations. By contrast, migrants from central, eastern and Baltic states find jobs quickly but are disproportionately represented in "lower status" roles. The ETUI report links this to differing motivations: western movers are more likely to relocate for career advancement, while eastern migrants often move for economic necessity or family reasons.

Implications for European policy and workers

The scale of internal migration raises questions about the EU's ability to ensure fair treatment for mobile workers. Trade unions argue that the disparity in wages and working conditions undermines the principle of a single European labour market. They call for stronger coordination of social‑security systems and a more streamlined process for recognising vocational qualifications.

Member states, meanwhile, face a balancing act. Host countries benefit from a steady supply of cheap labour that helps keep construction and service sectors competitive, yet they also bear the social costs of integration, housing pressure and potential wage suppression for low‑skill workers. Source countries lose a portion of their young, skilled population, which can exacerbate demographic challenges and limit domestic growth.Policy proposals under discussion include expanding the European Labour Authority's remit, creating EU‑wide standards for skill recognition and improving portability of social‑security benefits. Such measures could reduce the administrative burden on migrants and help level the playing field between locals and newcomers.

For workers like the fictional Mihai, the decision to move remains a trade‑off between higher earnings and the risk of precarious employment. As wages in eastern Europe slowly rise and remote work becomes more common, the incentive to cross borders may diminish, but the structural imbalances that drive the current flow are unlikely to disappear overnight.

In the meantime, the 10 million EU movers constitute a living laboratory for the Union's ambition of a truly integrated labour market. How Europe manages their rights, wages and social protection will shape not only the lives of those who cross borders but also the broader debate on fairness and cohesion within the single market.